Notable early kingdoms include the Kingdom of the Kongo in present day Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom in the Great Lakes region, the Kingdom of Mapungubwe (c.1075c.1220) in present day South Africa, and the Zambezi River, where the Monomatapa kings built the Great Zimbabwe complex. By Ellen Rubin. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. Under the rule of both Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin, numerous document examples of unnatural mass deaths have been recorded. WWII, however, reconfigured the imperial landscape, and by then, India was demanding independence, and the British were more than willing to give it to them. Their spread was occasioned by a phenomenon known as the Bantu Migration, or Bantu Expansion, which began in the first millennium and concluded towards the end of the 18th century. They inhabit a geographical area stretching east and southward from Central Africa across the African Great Lakes region down to Southern Africa. Other unreliable ethnic groups, such as Greeks and Assyrians, were also sucked into the maelstrom, and are now subject to separate genocide classifications. [19] Many Batwa groups speak Bantu languages; however, a considerable portion of their vocabulary is not Bantu in origin. But Pol Pot was not alone in perpetuating the horrors of his rule. Most of these treaties implied imperial protection in exchange for land rights. During that bitter period of modern Irish history between 1845 and 1849 approximately 1 million people died, and a million more emigrated. Some 6.5 million of those were Muslims migrating from India to Pakistan, and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan to India. This ideological aversion soon extended to ethnic Vietnamese, Chinese, Thais, Christians, Muslims and Buddhists, and indeed anyone at all perceived in any way to be an enemy of the revolution. Another stream settled in the central areas of modern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and Zambia, initiating a complete population replacement of the native African Pygmies who previously inhabited the area. If one was to point the finger at the former Soviet Union for acts of genocide, then one would be able to point in many different directions. https://investigativegenetics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2041-2223-1-6, https://investigativegenetics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2041-2223-1-6/tables/3. affected amongst others the western part of the Congo . The definition of genocide is fluid enough for it to be very easily claimed, and no less easily rejected. There are no noticeable differences between the two communities as they both use the same Bantu languages together with French, and mainly observe Christianity. Genocide obviously never sits well on the national conscience of any country, and so the finer points of definition are usually argued exhaustively. The ideological underpinning of all of this was simply the Maoist principle of transforming Cambodia into rural and classless society, with a population consigned to labor on collectivized farms. 10010, with the primary authorities cited on p. 176. I'd imagine it's the same way. The Tutsi's . Recognition is not universal, however, and a number of important countries support Turkey in this issue. India was, as the saying goes, the Jewel in the British Crown. This ideological aversion soon extended to ethnic Vietnamese, Chinese, Thais, Christians, Muslims and Buddhists, and indeed anyone at all perceived in any way to be an enemy of the revolution. The latter, the Khoisan, are the original, and much more ancient race displaced by the Bantu, and relegated in many instances to the arid desert reaches of the west of the sub-continent. It was one of the first states in Africa and paved the way for the historic Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe. At the time, the attention of the world tended to be focused on the events of WWI. Answer (1 of 3): Here we go again with the Bantu Expansion and supposed "genocide" of the Khoi-Khoi and the San of Southern Africa. Enter your library card number to sign in. 21128. The Khmer Rouge, or the Red Khmer, was a movement born out of the struggle against French colonization. The last major act of defiance of a native race in southern Africa against European domination was the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879. Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in. This began its extreme animus towards the west, a sentiment reinforced by the overspill of the Vietnam War. and were massacred in great numbers by Dutch, British, and German settlers in acts of genocide (e.g. The latter, the Khoisan, are the original, and much more ancient race displaced by the Bantu, and relegated in many instances to the arid desert reaches of the west of the sub-continent. An example of this was the Arab Revolt of the same period, which was facilitated and supported by TE Lawrence, the legendary Lawrence of Arabia. I did not know this at first but another historical Reddit page took my question down because of it. A few still live by foraging often supplemented by working for neighbouring farmers in the arid regions around the Kalahari desert, while a larger number of Nama continue their traditional subsistence by raising livestock in Namibia and adjacent South Africa. They are the shortest group of Pygmies in Africa, averaging under 4 feet 6 inches (137 cm) in height, and are perhaps the most famous. Ethnic Armenian Christians, mainly living in what would today be modern Turkey, became subject to genocide as the old ruling Caliphate of the Ottoman Empire came under the more modernizing influence of the Young Turks. The methods employed are by now familiar to students of genocide, and included the staples of forced labor, mass deportations, death marches, direct attack and massacre, concentration and starvation. Sutton, J. E. G. This paper outlines four stages of the Bantu expansion: first, the initial push through the equatorial forest from the northern to the southern woodlands; second, the occupation of the southern woodland belt from coast to coast; third, the colonization of the Tanzania, Kenya and southern Somali coastline and of the northern sector of the lake In other words, a ridiculous idea with no basis in rational thought was undertaken and executed with brilliant and systematic precision. No genocide to date had been based so completely on myths, on hallucinations, on abstract, nonpragmatic ideology which was then executed by very rational, pragmatic means.. It was of limited practical use to them, bearing in mind that it almost entirely comprised desert, but it was essential in the cut and thrust of competition, in particular with the British, in the race for European global expansion. via language shift and admixture of incoming and existing populations). The Bantu Expansion, the foremost linguistic, cultural, and demographic event in Late Holocene Africa, has sparked a fervent interdisciplinary debate, especially regarding its driving forces. This is simply because it was about ideological killing on a major scale, and because it was accompanied by such cruelty and such wanton human suffering. Yeah, Bantu expanded around 1500 years or so and did a little genociding of the Khoisans and pygmies in the area. Congo, Gabon) between 2500 BC and 1200 BC.[18]. The Bantu first originated around the Benue-Cross rivers area in southeastern Nigeria and spread over Africa to the Zambia area. On the western extremities of the southern African subcontinent lies the nation of Namibia, known until independence as South West Africa, and prior to that as German South West Africa. Researchers have found ways to trace the movement of Bantu-speaking peoples that began possibly as early as 2000 BCE. The text of this article was commissioned by History Guild as part of our work to improve historical literacy. The phenomenon was known as the Mfecane, or Difaqane, or the Scattering. To date, Turkey remains in denial, and the word genocide is excluded from the official description of what took place. His Impis, or regiments, were relentless and unstoppable. Between 1.5 and 3 million Cambodians died, or were killed by the regime. Recognition is not universal, however, and a number of important countries support Turkey in this issue. of the Congo rainforest at its periphery, for instance along the coasts of South Cameroon, Gabon, and Congo (11, 16, 19).A second event at 2,500 B.P. Nonetheless, in the unfathomable complexity of the Anglo-Irish relationship, there are no small number of historians who point the finger at the British government, not so much for acts of commission, but acts of omission. It must be remembered that the rise of Nazi Germany can be attributed to the terms of the peace imposed on imperial Germany in the aftermath of WWI. Typical grifter contradictions. In 2004, Somali Bantus from this group began arriving for permanent resettlement in the U.S. Acts of genocide are normally committed by state agents, for example by soldiers in the employ of the national military or by militias who have the support of those who hold state power. He introduced concepts of warfare and weaponry revolutionary in his age, and upon the death of Dingiswayo, he assumed the paramountcy of what is today known as Zululand. By about 1200 CE, "Bantu-ness" was a cultural and technological network across the vast trunk of Africa. Muslim nationalists then began demanding a two-state solution, which neither the British nor nationalists like Mohandas Mahatma Gandhi particularly wanted. It remains a livid international issue, however, and one upon which Turkeys entry into the European Union has traditionally been hinged. This response quickly escalated to orchestrated genocide, and was extended beyond the Herero to the neighboring Namaqua people, who were of Khoisan origin, and the San, or Bushmen as well. Evidence suggests that they moved rapidly across the continent, south and east, sometime between 2000 BCE and 1000 CE. The Bantu Expansion the migration of Bantu-speaking people across the African continent is one of Ancient historys largest migrations. cit. It is for chronological data concerning the second and third stages that we can now turn hopefully to archaeology. See below. Linguistic, archeological and genetic evidence indicates that during the course of the Bantu expansion, "independent waves of migration of western African and East African Bantu-speakers into southern Africa occurred. But the Zulu race itself was not innocent of genocide. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. It was of limited practical use to them, bearing in mind that it almost entirely comprised desert, but it was essential in the cut and thrust of competition, in particular with the British, in the race for European global expansion. Create an account to follow your favorite communities and start taking part in conversations. From what ik the bantu expansion is that it was a migration of people over a long period of time that did result in some cases as conflict but not wholesale coordinated genocide, in the most cases communties assimilated and mixed into each other and not some mass replacement and removal. Vitally important but lesser known were the Abyssinians (Ethiopians) fighting to eject the Italians from their country. The scope of the Armenian genocide is usually defined as the physical extermination of Armenian Christians living within the geographic boundaries of the Ottoman Empire, between 1915 and 1916. The military government solicited the aid of the United States, and a heavy-handed US response included a massive bombing during 1973, killing some 300,000 people. Even then Bantus aren't native to Tanzania. During the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, an estimated one million people, largely Tutsi, were killed. [22], Nilo-Saharan-speaking herder populations comprised a third group of the area's pre-Bantu expansion inhabitants.[23][24][25]. By the end of the day the Ndwandwe force, although it still outnumbered Shaka's, was in full retreat. A tell tale sign or mere speculations doesn't equate to proof. 285.Google Scholar, 16 Mathew, Gervase, The East African coast until the coming of the Portuguese, in Oliver, R. and Mathew, G., History of East Africa I (Oxford, 1963), 96.Google Scholar, 17 This was an Iron Age Colonization; therefore it Cannot have been earlier in time than the spread of the Iron Age in Indonesia around the first century A.D.Google Scholar, 18 Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P., The East African Coast (1962), 15, etc.Google Scholar, 19 Guthrie, Malcolm, loc. The continent's best-known language dispersal is no doubt the so-called 'Bantu Expansion'. From what ik the bantu expansion is that it was a migration of people over a long period of time that did result in some cases as conflict but not wholesale coordinated genocide, in the most cases communties assimilated and mixed into each other and not some mass replacement and removal. [34], Movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region were more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, due to comparatively difficult farming conditions in areas farther from water. If you would like to reproduce it please get in touch via this form. These two widely held beliefs are critically assessed here. To elucidate the still poorly characterized western Bantu expansion, we analyzed Y-chromosome (25 biallelic polymorphisms and 15 microsatellite markers) and mtDNA (hypervariable control regions I and II and selected coding region RFLPs) variation in a population of 110 individuals from southwest Africa, and compared it with a database of 2,708 For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. Professor of international law at the University of Illinois College of Law, Francis A. Boyle, argues that these actions, according to sections (a), (b), and (c) of Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, constitute genocide. It must be remembered that the rise of Nazi Germany can be attributed to the terms of the peace imposed on imperial Germany in the aftermath of WWI. However, the Holocaust, although predominately targeting Jews, was also an expression of Nazi aversion to any group or individual not conforming to a narrow definition of Aryan purity. This particular event, however, became embroiled in other social, political and economic issues, which is where historians tend to point the finger of blame at the British and accuse them of genocide. Between 300 AD-1000 AD, through participation in the long-existing Indian Ocean trade route, these communities established links with Arabian and Indian traders, leading to the development of the Swahili culture. Numerous individual countries, however, twenty-nine in total, including forty-eight states within the United States, classify what took place as genocide. Here, conditions of physical abuse, disease, exhaustion, and starvation began to claim the lives of hundreds of thousands of people. Currently, only the governments of Australia, Argentina, Georgia, Estonia, Italy, Canada, Lithuania, Poland, the USA and Hungary accept that the events of the Holodomor conform to the legal definition of genocide. Tensions and violence increased after the Rwandan Genocide as 1.5 million Hutu refugees fled Rwanda. The Allies, as a tactic of war, exploited traditional tensions within Ottoman territories to weaken the Empire. These include sultanates based at Lamu, Mombasa, Kilwa, Pate and Malindi. Other factors promoting state-formation were increased trade among African communities and with European and Arab traders on the coasts, technological innovations in economic activity, and new techniques in the political-spiritual ritualisation of royalty as the source of national strength and health. Language Dispersal, Diversification, and Contact, Patterns of diversification and contact: Re-examining dispersal hypotheses, Sociolinguistic typology and the uniformitarian hypothesis, Geographical axis effects in large-scale linguistic distributions, Patterns of dispersal and diversification in Island Southeast Asia and Oceania, Time, diversification, and dispersal on the Australian continent: Three enigmas of linguistic prehistory, Language diversity, geomorphological change, and population movements in the Sepik-Ramu basin of Papua New Guinea, The dynamics of human expansion and cultural diversification in Southeast Asia and Oceania during the Neolithic: An archeological perspective, The role of contact and language shift in the spread of Austronesian languages across Island Southeast Asia, Patterns of dispersal and diversification in Africa, Language diversification and contact in Africa, The Bantu Expansion: Some facts and fiction, Pots do not speak Bantu, but their producers did, Bantu languages spread through human migration, Language isolates and the spread of pastoralism in East Africa, Patterns of dispersal and diversification in South America, Amazonian linguistic diversity and its sociocultural correlates, Cultural phylogenetics in lowland South America, 'The Bantu Expansion: Some facts and fiction', in Mily Crevels, and Pieter Muysken (eds), Archaeological Methodology and Techniques, Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning, Literary Studies (African American Literature), Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers), Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature), Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques, Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge, Browse content in Company and Commercial Law, Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law, Private International Law and Conflict of Laws, Browse content in Legal System and Practice, Browse content in Allied Health Professions, Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics, Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology, Browse content in Science and Mathematics, Study and Communication Skills in Life Sciences, Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry, Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography, Browse content in Engineering and Technology, Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building, Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology, Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science), Environmentalist and Conservationist Organizations (Environmental Science), Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science), Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science), Natural Disasters (Environmental Science), Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science), Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science), Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System, Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction, Psychology Professional Development and Training, Browse content in Business and Management, Information and Communication Technologies, Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice, International and Comparative Criminology, Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics, Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs, Conservation of the Environment (Social Science), Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science), Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science), Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science), Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies, Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences, Browse content in Regional and Area Studies, Browse content in Research and Information, Developmental and Physical Disabilities Social Work, Human Behaviour and the Social Environment, International and Global Issues in Social Work, Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice, Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198723813.001.0001, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198723813.003.0013. The expansion reached South Africa, probably as early as AD 300.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. However, I've been told by numerous South Africans that the Khoisan have peacefully lived by Nguni peoples for thousands of years and that it is a division tactic. These were, and are the Bantu and the Koi-koi, or Khoisan. If it was not Continue Reading 26 18 Matt Jennings In March 1970, the military in Cambodia ended the traditional rule of Prince Sihanouk. The Zulu style of warfare was based on finely tuned tactics, relentless discipline and brutal, close-quarters combat. The rough chronology established on genealogical evidence has recently been confirmed by radiocarbon dates from Bigo, the earliest site identifiable in the dynastic tradition of the region.Google Scholar, 28 Verhulpen, E., Baluba et Balubaiss (Antwerp, 1939).Google Scholar, 29 Nenquin, J., Notes on some early pottery cultures in North Katanga, Journal of African History, IV (1963), 1932.CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 30 Clark, J. Desmond, The spread of food production in sub-Saharan Africa, Journal of African History, III (1962), 222;Google ScholarFagan, B., Southern Africa, 4851.Google Scholar, 31 Oliver, R., Discernible developments in the interior, c. 15001840, in R. Oliver and G. Mathew, History of East Africa, I (1963), 18091.Google Scholar. To make sense of this paradox, the researchers carried out a large-scale comparison of all the ancient African DNA gathered so far, along with living people from across Africa and beyond. The mechanics of the Holocaust are now so universally understood that nothing can be added here. Probably in the minds of a few individuals who had the power to stop it, it was, but as a systematic government policy, perhaps not. Some argue that the famine came about as an unintended consequence of the Soviet Unions rapid, perhaps too rapid industrialization, while others claim that it was a deliberate attack against Ukrainian nationalism, and as such, a textbook case of genocide. Was it all kumbaya and holding hands? The linguistic core of the Bantu languages, which comprise a branch of the Atlantic-Congo language family, was located in the southern regions of Cameroon. Archaeological findings have shown that by 100 BC to 300 AD, Bantu speaking communities were present at the coastal areas of Misasa in Tanzania and Kwale in Kenya. The Nazi extermination of the Jews, on the other hand, was strictly ideological and remained so until its conclusion. The Khmer Rouge, a communist group headed by revolutionary, Pol Pot, allied itself with Sihanouk against the coup plotters, thus creating the conditions for the bloody civil war that followed. Between 1904 and 1907, up to 100,000 Herero and 10,000 Nama were killed, many in concentration camps, dying of disease and starvation. He says that Mali wasn't a civilisation in one video, yet in another video, he says that Mali was an empire. The causes of the 1932-33 famine can be attributed to nothing more complicated than state interference in production. . Press question mark to learn the rest of the keyboard shortcuts. Required fields are marked *. In all probability, however, this was genocide, because it could not have been done without the expectation that death on a mass scale would be the result. Granted, there was defo some conflict between the Bantu and Hunter-Gatherers (as well Nilotic and Cushitic pastoralists) but that doesn't mean there was a genocide. [41] Other inland centres established during this phase of expansion include Bigo bya Mugenyi in Uganda, Thimlich Ohinga in Kenya and the Kweneng' Ruins in South Africa. Needless to say, there are passionate advocates on both sides of the argument; and certainly a fractious, and historically difficult relationship between Dublin and London is not improved in the slightest by the discussion. Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. A prime example is the Southern African Kingdom of Mapungubwe. This resulted in an attempt to systematically eliminate the large Christian Armenian minority. In this campaign, the mighty Zulu nation made one last, desperate effort to throw off the colonial yoke. Furthermore, both the Khoisan and Pygmies still mostly have their own specific Y-DNA haplogroups. From Australia, we move to Africa, and a slightly different take on genocide. You do realise hunter-gatherers (like the San and Pygmies and not the Khoi as they were/are pastoralists) tend to have smaller populations than agriculturalists. That child, a boy, was given the name Shaka, a pejorative reference to an intestinal parasite. The Nazi extermination of the Jews, on the other hand, was strictly ideological and remained so until its conclusion. There Shaka revealed something much more than a simple talent for war, something, in fact, akin to genius. [35] Such processes of state-formation occurred with increasing frequency from the 16th century onward. Numerous individual countries, however, twenty-nine in total, including forty-eight states within the United States, classify what took place as genocide. Millions? Why the Jews were targeted in particular conforms to an age-old strategy of isolating a conspicuously wealthy subculture, and placing upon it the blame for every ailment and every woe afflicting an ethnically dominant population. Almost immediately, as British officials handed over, Hindus in India began attacking and killing Muslims, and in Pakistan, vice versa. The first 500 years were spent moving a few hundred kilometers through the dense West Central African rainforest. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian. The German Empire claimed the colony in 1884, as part of what was known as the Scramble for Africa. As for (2), the chapter argues that the earliest Bantu speakers had their own archeologically visible culture, but they were not farmers. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account. Was the Great Irish Famine genocide? In the 1840s, Ireland existed as part of Great Britain and Ireland, and as such, it was ruled directly from London by the British Government. As we approach the top of the list, the Cambodian Genocide, the infamous Killing Fields of the 1790s, ranks very highly. Their spread was occasioned by a phenomenon known as the Bantu Migration, or Bantu Expansion, which began in the first millennium and concluded towards the end of the 18th century. An example of this was the Arab Revolt of the same period, which was facilitated and supported by TE Lawrence, the legendary Lawrence of Arabia. Does this action fall into the classification of genocide? [15] The 60,000-km2 Mambilla region straddling the borderlands here has been identified as containing remnants of "the Bantu who stayed home" as the bulk of Bantu-speakers moved away from the region. However, the climate-induced destruction of this rainforest in 1000BCE propelled the next stage of migration forward at a rapid pace.
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